Article Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Article Summary - Essay Example It is evident that these companies exploit loopholes to avoid taxes even when Britain and Germany have announced their plans to get fair share of taxes from them. The article then analyses the case of each of the companies separately. Starbuck’s share of contribution to UK taxes over 13 years was only 8.6 millions even though the worlds biggest coffee company recorded sales of 3.1 billion pounds during the period. The most shocking fact reported by Reuters is that the company has not paid any income tax in the nation during the past three years. However, the company delegates hold that they always follow the tax rules correctly and are ready to pay their fair share of taxes. In the case of Google, even though the company had a sale of $4 billion in 2011 the tax paid by the company was only 3.4 million pounds and it has been identified that the company â€Å"avoids UK tax by channeling non-U.S. sales via an Irish unit† (Bergin). In the same way, the filings by Amazon als o show that the company paid just less than 1 million pounds of tax the previous year even though it had sales worth $5.3-7.2 billion in UK. It is thus evident that the company also avoids taxes through unfair means. The author concludes the article by emphasizing the need for new revenue-based tax to ensure that such international companies pay their fair share of taxes to the UK economy without

International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

International Business - Essay Example 1. Introduction The French food retailer Groupe Auchan S.A. (Auchan) is one of the world’s top retail and distribution groups and the fourth largest food retailer in France with a market share of about 12 percent (Standard & Poor’s, 2011). It competes with European giants such as Carrefour and Casino. Auchan has a strong position in the hypermarket segment which contributes about 80% of the group’s revenues. In addition to intense competition, rising inflation has been holding back consumer spending in Western European markets. Auchan has expanded into several Asian countries and also in Central and Eastern Europe. India has a huge retail market but it has FDI restrictions and does not permit foreign companies into multi-brand retail. Auchan has been attempting to enter into India through a franchise agreement with Dubai-based Landmark Group. The Landmark Group, founded in Bahrain with a single shop, has grown into one of the largest retail organizations (Landmar k Group, 2012). Currently, the Landmark Group operates the SPAR hypermarkets and supermarkets in India but their agreement with SPAR is set to come to an end. Auchan Groupe intends to enter into a franchise agreement with the Landmark Group until India amends its FDI policy. As of now India does not permit FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in multi-brand retailing. 2. Rationale for choosing India India offers huge potential for the retail sector as the disposable income of the middle-class has been growing. FDI in different sectors has been increasing in India and the Indian currency (Rupee) has become strong in the international market. However, PEST analysis would help in evaluating if Auchan’s decision to enter India is a viable proposition. Political The political situation in India is unstable as it has a coalition government since no single party has clear majority. The industrial sector also faces opposition and the growth in agriculture has been slow. However, the role of the central government as the intermediary of the state governments is now ending (Mohan, 2006). This indicates that states now have autonomy while the growing middle-class favours liberalization. The business conglomerates in India have turned their attention to retailing (Deloitte, 2008). The Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, is the nodal agency for monitoring and reviewing the FDI policy in India on continued basis (Tyagi, 2010). Economic The Indian economy has undergone tremendous change. The Indian economy has recorded high growth rates and is an attractive destination for investments (IBEF, 2011). The Indian economy is expected to grow at 7.5% and is expected to contribute to the recovery of the world economy. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was 8.5% during 2010-11 against 8% in 2009-2010. Over the next two years India is expected to attract FDI worth USD 80 billion according to a research report by Morgan Stanley as cited by IBEF. India’s reta il sector is expected to grow to $635bn by 2015 (Sengupta, 2008). At the same time, food retail is expected to grow to $1.6bn over the next five-year period (Srivastava, 2008). Social The modern cities such as Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore show evidence of modernization and adaptation to western standards under the influence of globalization (Pick & Dayaram, 2006). Growth and development in communications technology, development of transport infrastructure, widespread availability of western

The Use Of Sewage Sludge As A Fertilizer Environmental Sciences Essay

The Use Of Sewage Sludge As A Fertilizer Environmental Sciences Essay Fertilizers necessary for the maintenance and increase of soil productivity are classified into two categories: 1) organic fertilizers consisted of crop residues, sludge and manure, and 2) inorganic fertilizers which are synthetic fertilizers consisted of 3 key elements: nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (Merrington, 2002). Organic Fertilizers Sludge Sewage sludge also known as bio-solid is the remainder product of domestic or urban waste water cleaning at waste water treatment plants. It has high levels of organic content as well as plant nutrients. Although it would make a good fertilizer, the pollutant capability of sewage sludge is high as it is also composed of industrial waste (Merrington, 2002). The process where sewage sludge or materials obtained from it are sprayed, injected or spread on land is defined as land application. It is applied on or below agricultural land surface, forests and lawns because it is high in nutrient content and can enhance soil quality (EPA, 1994). In addition, it serves as a fertilizer supplying the necessary nutrients for crops and other vegetation. Sewage is applied in bulk meaning in large amounts by commercial and municipal appliers for various purposes such as agriculture, golf courses and recovery of mining sites (EPA, 1994). In sites such as mining sites which are completely destroyed and barely have soil substrate for vegetation, nitrogen and organic material content need to be higher than normal level before the site is seeded. For the use of sewage sludge in home gardens or lawns, it is available in a bag or small container intended for small-scale use (EPA, 1994). In the use of sewage sludge, it is crucial to keep in mind the negative impacts it can have if not utilized properly. Nitrates which are easily soluble and have high potential for contamination make up majority of the sewage sludge components (EPA, 1994). As a result, great care is taken in its application and the applier as to fulfill requirements set by the government. Although sewage sludge is applied on land to enhance quality of soil, it is also used as a technique for disposing land (EPA, 1994). Sewage sludge is supplied by water companies for famers to use on their land. Although it contains toxic elements, it still has beneficial effects. According to a study done, farmers who use sewage sludge as fertiliser have a saving of 15 million pounds yearly as it contains high levels of nitrogen and phosphorous as well as necessary micronutrients. In addition, it enhances the structure as well as water retention capacity of soil through the organic matter it supplies (Stout, 1979). Usage of sewage sludge as a fertilizer is not a concept that is applied in many regions of the world. Although before application of sludge on land, it undergoes treatment such as anaerobic digestion to have low pathogen count it still contains potentially dangerous contaminants such as copper, cadmium, zinc, PAHs and PCBs. The amount of contaminants present in sewage sludge is dependent upon the source of the sludge (Merrington, 2002). Toxic metals forming a large component of sludge is a well known fact however, the level at which those metals become harmful is the point of debate (Renner, 2001). As a result, some countries are becoming more restricting or banning to protect the health of individuals. Research compiled indicates that individuals who live in areas within 1 km of land-application sites have been found to show irritation of the eyes, throat, skin and lungs preceding exposure to wind from fields that have had sludge applied. It was found that Staphylococcus aureus was the bacteria involved in the irritations observed on exposed individuals. Although sewage sludge may be low in pathogen count, it is crucial to take into consideration possible interaction of pathogen with chemical contaminants and as a result becoming unsafe for the health of individuals (Lewis, 2002). Manure Manure is composed of three key elements; nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. These elements are a necessity for the growth of plants as well as the enhancement of soil quality through increasing organic matter and water-holding capacity. In addition, acidity is neutralized and compaction is reduced. Manure serves as a great substitute for synthetic fertilizers whose prices increased dramatically in the recent years (MacDonald, 2009). Land application of manure is possible either by grazing animals or transportation from manure storage facilities. Study found that nitrogenous commercial fertilizer doubled in prices in the 2000- 2007 timeframe and then increased again by 62% in between December 2007 and September 2008. Moreover, phosphate commercial fertilizer prices have increased by 115% in the 2000- 2007 timeframe followed by 177% increase between December 2007 and September 2008 (MacDonald, 2009). Although those high prices make manure more appealing, there are limitations that come along with the use of manure. Manure transportation is pricey even if it is not transported very far. (MacDonald, 2009) In addition, manure may not be composed of the exact combination of nutrients required for the growth of specific crops or fields. Moreover, waste that can be transmitted through runoff of nutrients, pathogens and organic matter from land to surface water pose great environmental as well as health risks. Leaching of nutrients and pathogens to ground water, volatile gases and odours contaminating the atmosphere are additional problems faced (MacDonald, 2009). According to the regulations, industrialized livestock production cannot concentrate manure on limited acres as that would exceed the acceptable limits. As a result, it becomes necessary to distribute manure into larger land which in turn requires better transportation as well as application techniques. Storage of manure before it is applied on land can result in problems such as flooding, manure odour and seepage (MacDonald, 2009). Inorganic Fertilizers Nitrogen Nitrogenous fertilizers are a result of combining atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen to yield final product ammonia. Ammonia is the base found in at least 90% of fertilizers. It is found in the U.S.A. 38% of the ammonia produced is used for fertilizers while the remaining is utilized for the production of Urea. Urea production has increased over the years with an 11% increase from 1967 to 1973 and has become reliable nitrogen source. Hydrogen required can be obtained from varied sources such as natural gas, fuel oil, coal, naphtha and hydrolized water (Stout, 1981). The following chemical equation represents formation of nitrogenous fertilizers 2N + 3H2 -> 2NH3 There is a continuous increase in the use of inorganic fertilizers despite the fact that they require large quantity of energy to produce. Table 11 below displays the use of oil and natural gas for nitrogen fertilizers worldwide. Developed countries utilized approximately four times as much oil and natural gas for nitrogen fertilizer in 1975 (Stout, 1981). Research has shown the greater use of fertilizers in the developed nations has increased yields per hectare. Phosphate Phosphate fertilizers are produced by the use of phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid or nitric acid to decompose phosphate rock. If nitric acid is used further treatment with ammonia is required for it to be utilized as a fertilizer. Although there is lots of phosphate rock available, there are environmental problems associated with mining of those rocks for the production of fertilizers. The sulphur necessary for carrying out the process is obtained from ore-deposit or a by-product of other process. Use of sulphuric acid is very efficient but has the downside of producing large amount of sulphate waste resulting in environmental problems. In addition, world reserve of ore is being depleted and obtaining sulphur from the by-products of other processes is very costly (Stout, 1981). Research shows there is a minimum of 90 * 10^8 metric tons of phosphate rock found in the world and because production in 1972 was only about 13* 10^6 metric tons, there is no concern that phosphate reserves will be diminishing for a while. However, there are environmental problems associated in the mining of phosphate rock such as temporary demolition of land and soil erosion (Stout, 1981). According to the table below it can be seen that phosphate recovery is relatively cheap in North America and Africa followed by Europe while obtaining phosphorous from region such as Oceania, South America and Asia is more costly. Potassium Potassium is the 7th most abundant element in the world and is widely dispersed throughout the world. It is found in soils, rivers, lakes and rocks. Studies have shown that 95% of potash required for production of potassium fertilizers is obtained from underground mines where deposits are 3, 000 feet below the surface in Saskatchewan and 2,500 feet below the surface (Production and Use of Potassium, 1998). There are potassium deposits that are isolated in few parts of the world. Canada, Germany and U.S.S.R. are the top three countries with the highest level of potassium resources. Consumption of potash has exceeded demand over the years (Production and Use of Potassium, 1998). However, research shows that will change in the future and Canada having high potash resources is willing to increase production to meet demand requirements (Stout, 1981). The following table depicts potash distribution in various regions of the world with Canada having the highest in mine production as well as reserve base. Comparisons Between Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers Manure Versus Inorganic Fertilizers Organic and inorganic fertilizers both have their advantages and disadvantages. The following table compares the nutrient content of manure and inorganic fertilizer. It is observed that the level of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are significantly higher in fertilizer as opposed to manure. Animal and human excrements contain lower levels of the key 3 elements required for growth. The nutrient content of animal excrement is variable and is dependent upon factors such as type of species and the type of nutrient of feed (Stout, 1981). Sludge Versus Inorganic Fertilizer (Nitrogen Fertilizer) Many studies have been done to test the effect of sludges, synthetic fertilizers and manures on the final yield of crops. Given the same level of water and nutrients, the use of sludges, fertilizers or manure did not have any large impact on crop yield. However, in the long term, due to the presence of micronutrients in sludges, there is potential for damage if metals such as copper, nickel and zinc accumulate (Harrison, 2003). A study was performed to determine the amount of bio-solids necessary to replace nitrogen fertilizer. Different rates of sewage sludge and nitrogen fertilizer were applied in 6 different farms through discing a technique used to turn and loosen the soil in order to prevent the loss of ammonia nitrogen as much as possible. It is important to apply other nutrients to all areas to ensure nitrogen as the only limiting nutrient (Binder, 2009). The above graph shows that sites receiving more sludge (site four and six) had higher yields in comparison to sites that received nitrogen fertilizer. It can be observed that there was minute response to nitrogen fertilizers in all three sites. Results can be explained by the presence of nutrients found in sludge that are not present in nitrogen fertilizers (Binder, 2009). Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages of organic fertilizers Rapid decomposition of organic fertilizers makes nutrients highly available. Organic fertilizers are bulky and readily available. Energy is not directly needed in the manufacturing process and they are highly renewable. In addition, they also have little direct cost and provide a method to dispose waste. Although they dont have high amounts of the three key elements they have other minerals that are not found in synthetic fertilizers that contribute in increased water retention capability of soil, its structure and its resistance to erosion. (Morris, 2007) Disadvantage of organic fertilizers Organic fertilizers are not very high in nutrient and analysis of components is not very precise. Decomposition of organic material cannot be controlled as it is dependent on temperature and soil moisture. This results in the release of nutrients when they are not needed. It is very difficult to meet necessary nutrient levels for crop growth solely through the use of organic fertilizers. Waste from humans and animals consist of disease causing microorganisms and therefore need to be disposed of safely (Morris, 2007). Advantage of inorganic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers on the other hand are very high in nutrient concentration and transportation of handling is fairly easy. In addition, it is analysis of content is very precise and can utilize waste from other manufacturing process (Morris, 2007). Disadvantage of inorganic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers have increasing cost and are produced from finite resources. It requires large use of energy for manufacturing. Unlike organic fertilizers, availability is dependent on production, cost and region. Moreover, inorganic fertilizers create waste in processing. Although both organic and inorganic fertilizers contribute to water pollution, the manufacturing process of inorganic fertilizers alone results in water pollution. Nitrates pose a big threat due to the increased algae growth in lakes and water supplies. Phosphate fertilizers also have fluorides and sulphur oxides as a by-product (Morris, 2007). Blue-baby syndrome resulting in babies having pale/blue skin as well as lethargic eyes is caused by nitrates found in organic fertilizers contaminating drinking water. Other reproduction problems are also caused as a result of inorganic fertilizers (Morris, 2007). Nitrates from inorganic fertilizers pose a big threat due to the increased algae growth in lakes and water supplies. Algal Blooms result in formation of increased biomass, decreased sunlight to plants found in water, decreased oxygen levels and disruption of food webs. As a result, it is an issue requires great care (Morris, 2007). Regulations and Safety Although animal manure serves as a great fertiliser and soil amendment it has risks associated with it as it can exceed limits resulting in severe environmental problems. To deal with these problems government has ensured to have regulation and conservation programs. In some states there have been lawsuits initiated against livestock operations as a result of damaging water resources from manure (MacDonald, 2009). To meet the requirements of those regulations the livestock operations have to deal with increased costs and as a result it is predicted there will be changes made to manure use. Prices are dependent on the excess manure that needs to be disposed. In addition, if farmers are not willing to take in manure for use in their cropland livestock producers must transport the excess manure farther to use for their crop (MacDonald, 2009). It is absolutely necessary to ensure that sewage sludge applied does not cause any harm to the environment or humans. To ensure safety, requirements that must be met before application have been prepared although they differ from region to region. The following table presents the requirements set by Maryland Department of Environment for application of sewage sludge (OMalley, 2009). In addition, acceptable maximum concentrations of contaminants found in sludge to be applied in land have also been set by the NYSDEC. Cumulative limits represent the maximum level of chemical that can be applied in land repeatedly and over time. The following table displays acceptable limits for various types of contaminants (Harrison, 2003). Restrictions set by NYSDEC for applying Class B sludges makes certain that appliers obtain permits specifically for the sites they want to utilize which also includes acceptable limits of contaminants. Nitrogen levels should also not exceed limits. A mandatory waiting period of 14 months in the case of above ground crops and 38 months in the case of below ground crops have been set by NYSDEC. It is recommended that appliers check with their local regulations as it may vary from region to region (Harrison, 2003). Conclusion In this section we have talked about how organic fertilizers are compared to inorganic fertilizers, including the advantages and disadvantages of each. Sewage sludge is categorized as an organic fertilizer. It is a good fertilizer because of the amount of nutrients it contains. However, regulations are made to ensure that its application is safe to us, animals, and the environment because sewage sludge also contains many dangerous contaminants. In Conclusion The purpose of this report is to provide information about the compositions, the treatments, and the applications of sewage sludge. Sewage sludge comes from wastewater filtration and is often perceived as environmental waste that needs to be eliminated. However, sewage sludge can be used as a fertilizer in agriculture because of the nutrients it contains. The only downside is that sewage sludge also contains many toxic and dangerous substances that must be limited or removed before it can be safely used. Many treatments were developed to limit these toxins and pathogens. Government also made regulations on the applications of sewage sludge to protect the environment. Overall, sewage sludge plays a role in our life and environment. Understanding the importance of sewage sludge makes us appreciate its existence as more than just a mere waste.

Physics of Sailing :: physics sport sports boating sail boat

The Hull of the boat is the frame which keeps the boat and its crew floating in the water. The mast is the tall pole that sits vertically near the center of the hull, the mast is what the sails are attached to to keep them suspended and straight. The boom is a large pole attached to the bottom part of the mast which is able to rotate up, down and side to side. The sails attach to the boom and the mast then the person controlling the main sail moves the boom around to change the direction and tension in the mainsail. The rudder is atached to the rear of the boat and is what essencially steers the boat (note that the rudder alone will not steer the boat exactly where you want to go in a sailboat unlike other motorboats). The most difficult part of a sail boat for most beginners to understand is the keel or centerboard. The keel of the boat does many things, it acts as a pivital point for sharp turns and "jibbing", it helps keep the boat upright by lowering the center of gravity of the boat, it works to keep the boat moving in a line of motion close to that of the direction that the boat is facing. This is because the boat is usually being pushed heavily to the side by the wind. And the keel also works to pull the boat into the direction of the wind the same way the sails do. This is a concept that I will discuss later on. The Sails: The sails of the boat are what provide the forward thrust. There can be several sails but in every sail boat there is a main sail. That is the sail which is attached to the mast and is usually the tallest sail on the boat, it is controlled by the boom and has several attachments used for slight adjustments to get the most effeciency. There is usually a "jib", a smaller sail in the front of the boat attached to a guy wire which reaches about %75 of the height of the mast or main sail. The jib provides additional forward force but is just as usefull in providing manuverability in low speed or low wind situations or moving out of a docks area. In this site I will refer only to sailboats with a standard mainsail and jib, as in the picture to the right.

Cyber Bullying Is the Fastest Growing Trend in Bullying

Cyber bullying is the fastest growing trend in bullying among teens and probably the most dangerous. It gives anonymity to those who don’t want people to actually see them bullying in school. Also, cyber bullying takes away the last sanctuary some of these kids have, their home. What an awful feeling that must be, to come home from a day of being picked on just to be picked on more via internet. Cyber bullying can come in many ways: text message, email, website, blogs, They can be pictures taken from a camera phone sent to many people to see. Teens spend a lot of time on the internet using social websites like, Myspace and Facebook. These are places where a kid can kind of reinvent himself and exert a little creativity. A place to â€Å"get away† and when those things are taken away the results can be disastrous. This was a difficult paper for me to write. I tend to be an empathetic person and reading all of the horrible stories about children taking their own lives and suffering all that abuse really broke my heart. I, like most people, experienced bullying in middle school and it still bothers me today. I wish there was a way to stop all bullying but over half of bullying incidents go unreported. It is terribly sad that millions of children suffer every day at the hands of bullies. These poor souls can go their entire lives living in fear and feeling completely weakened and insufficient. I know first hand the damage caused when a depressed person takes his own life. Learned Helplessness is a lie. There is always a way out, always steps that can be taken. Suicide is a permanent solution to a temporary problem. If only we could get these bullied kids to see that they aren’t alone and that they are capable, wonderful kids. They need to understand that their identity is not defined by these heartless and cruel actions. We may not be able to stop the bullying but we can certainly diminish the lasting effects. I tutor a 5 year old that struggles with being picked up. They make fun of the way his head is shaped and it is horribly remarkable how fast he has become sensitive about the way he looks. Some days you can see the defeat in his eyes and in the way that he moves. It is heart breaking. I am going to close with a poem written by a 14 year old girl whose best friend committed suicide as a result of being bullied.

Popular Culture Media and Society: Culture Jamming Essay

Introduction â€Å"Culture jamming† is a strategy often utilized by the anti-globalization movement in the creation and reappropriation of memes, or memorable and persistent ideas. Traditional culture jamming strategies have included a variety of actions, ranging from billboard liberation, wherein artists reclaim billboards as public space, to media activism, wherein activists attempt to garner news coverage through some form of direct action in order to have their message heard. Additional tactics such as spoof advertisements geared to mock a particular brand or industry and branding removal, wherein activists remove all marks of branding from products, have also been deployed. Culture jammers attempt to expose the norms of western industrial society and call them into question but often their attempts are not popular enough to reach a large audience and encourage a large scale questioning of the status quo. The goals of the culture jamming community are to introduce new norms into societies that effectively turn back the meanings of current social norms. Despite the best intentions of those working within the movement, traditional culture jamming rarely makes it into popular culture and is thus often thwarted in the attempt to successfully challenge the norms perpetuated by globalization. The purpose of this study is to examine the ways in which culture jamming that permeates the media and crosses the line from subculture to pop culture can challenge hegemonic structures of power while simultaneously reinforcing those challenges by increasing their popularity. Through the study of popular culture artifacts from a variety of genres I hope to determine whether or not popular culture may serve as an effective strategic forum for the introduction of culture jamming artifacts, as opposed to the traditional and more subversive tactics being deployed by culture jammers. Towards an Understanding of Culture Jamming Culture jamming and studies of culture jamming have typically focused on the ability of an activist group or individual to effectively redeploy the signs and symbols of a dominant system in a manner that disrupts their meaning and critiques the overall system from which the symbols originate. In his recently republished 1993 pamphlet on culture jamming, Mark Dery (2001) states that culture jammers: †¦ introduce noise into the signal as it passes from transmitter to receiver, encouraging idiosyncratic, unintended interpretations. Intruding on the intruders, they invest ads, newscasts, and other media artifacts with subversive meanings; simultaneously, they decrypt them, rendering their seductions impotent (para. 36). From Dery’s perspective culture jamming can be seen as actions or artifacts that are politically or subversively charged. Jamming can range from parody to media gags, but always aims to make a statement against a particular target of power or popularity within a culture. Similarly, semiotic theorist Umberto Eco (1984) advocates that one form of media can be utilized to spread criticism pointed at another type of medium in order to â€Å"restore a critical dimension to passive reception† (p. 138). Eco refers to acts and artifacts that have this potential to be part of â€Å"semiotic guerilla warfare.† The signs and symbols of a culture are open to interpretation. While within a culture there may be a common meaning for these signs and symbols within a culture that meaning is not set in stone. A sign or a symbol may be used to contradict its own popular meaning. Thus we can see how semiotics plays an important role in developing tools for the toolbox of the culture jammer. The lack of fixed meaning in the signs we see on a daily basis allow culture jammers to turn back symbols as semiotic weapons against their creators. Kalle Lasn (2000) defines culture jamming as the demarketing of marketing. As the founder of Adbusters magazine, Lasn has pushed for the reclaiming and redeployment of particular brand names, icons, and advertising campaigns through a process known to culture jammers as subvertising. Lasn explains in his book, Culture Jam that culture jammers utilize Debord’s notion of detournement, or turning back specific aspects of a spectacle against itself. In the case of culture jamming, brands and their advertising are turned back upon themselves to reveal questions and inconsistencies about a particular advertiser’s ideals as seen through its campaigns. Lasn (2000) also claims that successful culture jamming can function as a pincer movement utilizing both high profile media campaigns that challenge industry in combination with grass roots campaigns for local action. The challenge to an industry or target combined with encouragement of behavioral change has the potential to change the perception of the target on a broad scale while also reducing support for the target. A well-organized pincer will get millions of people thinking about their lives—about eating better, driving less, jumping off the fashion treadmill, downshifting. Eventually the national mood will evolve (pg136). Lasn’s pincer attack attempts to make that which is currently chic or popular in a society unpopular on a massive scale. As fewer people within the society buy into the imagery of a particular industry or brand the industry loses financial support and must either change its practices or face rejection by the community at large. Lasn has spear headed grass roots campaigns such as â€Å"Buy Nothing Day;† an annual campaign urging consumers to avoid buying anything on the last Friday of November (a date commonly known among retailers as â€Å"Black Friday† as it often marks record profits for retailers as a result of holiday shopping). Lasn combines this grassroots campaign with thirty-second television ad spots on CNN each year as well as more locally oriented promotion such as fliers that activists can print off the Internet and disseminate at will. Christine Harold (2004) claims that the culture jammer â€Å"seeks to undermine the marketing rhetoric of multinational corporations, specifically through such practices as media hoaxing, corporate sabotage, billboard ‘liberation,’ and trademark infringement† (p. 190). These strategies are used by jammers in an effort to â€Å"glut the system† by supplying audiences with contradictory messages. Their goal is to generate a qualitative change in the minds of the audience about the subject matter targeted. Harold (2004) critiques traditional culture jamming as a rhetorical strategy because it often relies upon revelation of hidden truths and rejection of the systems it attempts to play upon. In her analysis, Harold specifically indicts Lasn’s publications and others who deploy parody or direct negation of corporate logos in their attempts to cause questioning of norms. Reliance on parody as a mechanism for revealing truth requires audiences to deconstruct the common meaning of a sign with little to work with but the sign itself. Additionally, parody causes a commitment to rhetorical binaries that articulate rejection of the targeted idea with little room for the idea to be reframed. Dominant powers within a criticized system can easily utilize these tactics for their own means. The reliance on a recognized symbol helps to maintain its cultural prominence. The rhetorical binary used by culture jammers allows the targeted entity to easily deflect criticism and quash the questioning of norms. While Adbusters and activists of similar ideology may put forth a message of rebellion and rejection corporate targets can use these concepts of rebellion and rejection to sell their products. Recent advertisements for Sprite illustrate this concept well as they focus on rejecting celebrity culture and embracing one’s own character by purchasing the product. Harold (2004) advocates a more appropriative approach to culture jamming seeks to be appropriated by commercial media in order to redirect the focus of dominant media systems. Much of Harold’s argument focuses on the value of media activism via prank, pointing to groups such as the Barbie Liberation Organization (BLO) and Biotic Baking Brigade (BBB) as groups that have successfully received positive media coverage through their pranks. Clearly, we can see that culture jamming may be an effective strategy for putting dominant hierarchies, organizations, and systems into question. However, Reinsborough and Harold (2004) both raise interesting points in terms of the effectiveness of the strategy, with Harold illustrating the problems of strategies that are not appropriative and Reinsborough recognizing that subversive media strategies (such as those Harold advocates) are often limited in scope. When considering Reinsborough’s (2003) usage of the word meme the concept that he is referring to is not necessarily identical to that articulated by memetic theorists. Susan Blackmore (1999) has broadly defined memes as â€Å"everything that you have learned by imitation† (pg6). The definition of imitation from a memetic perspective should not be confused with â€Å"copycat† acts. Instead, imitation should be seen as memes passing from one mind to another. In his article on culture jammers and the World Wide Web, Stephen Downes (1999) defines the meme as a â€Å"contagious idea that spreads from one mind to another† (para. 2). He articulates that memes are a way to represent the ideas contained within advertising and explains that in order for ideas to take hold in one’s mind they must appeal to the audience in a way that helps them to be remembered. Similarly, Kalle Lasn (2000) speaks of â€Å"infotoxins,† or â€Å"infoviruses,† that permeate dominant media forums. Lasn claims that disinformation is propagated through media and public relations spin resulting in the establishment of incorrect beliefs about the world. In one example, Lasn refers to the media’s portrayal of anti-automobile activists as limiters of personal freedom as a contributing factor in the failure of activists to popularize their message. The movement becomes unable to stimulate a mindset shift towards a culture that is less dependent upon petroleum products. As the activists are seen as â€Å"anti-freedom† harms they are attempting to solve such as global warming are not taken seriously. Additionally, he argues that while the effects of global warming can be seen on both local and global scales, disinformation that has been spread through dominant media forums has led to a sense of complacency about the issue in the minds of Americans. Lasn believes these â€Å"infoviruses† are untruthful memes that must be challenged through the production of counteractive memes that outperform those that movements wish to question. â€Å"We build our own meme factory, put out a better product and beat the corporations at their own game. We identify the macromemes and the metamemes—the core ideas without which a sustainable future is unthinkable—and deploy them† (pg124). Both Reinsborough (2003) and Lasn (2000) seem to be identifying that memes are memorable and popular concepts that have the ability to be spread in order to transform cultural norms. Blackmore (1999) and Downes (1999) clearly illustrate that memes are made up of ideas that are picked up from popular culture and imitated. The process of culture jamming can be seen as one generating memes that hold a meaning that challenges existing norms. To return to the analogy of the gene, culture jamming can be seen as a form of â€Å"memetic engineering† with a goal of producing a dominant and meaningful meme that causes new â€Å"traits,† or meanings, to become exemplified within a culture. Understanding the Transformative Potential of Popular Culture Communication and mass media scholars have examined the extent to which popular culture may contribute to the formation of cultural norms and social structure. Guy Debord (1977) implicates popular culture in large portion of what he labels â€Å"the society of the spectacle.† Debord’s (1977) view of the world in the era of global capitalism is one in which popular culture serves to provide images or representations of the world that do not represent its historical state, but instead inspire audiences to digest the world around them as commodities as a replacement for the real. Artifacts such as films are not representative of art, but are tools to inspire audiences to strive towards the acquisition of consumer goods and respect the hierarchal structure. Debord (1977) points out that the society of the spectacle is replete with images and representations that drive audiences to become consumers. This consumption leads audiences to respect the structural hierarchies that repress them. In essence, the complacency most audiences have towards the consumption of images and subsequently the world around them drives this structuralism. While Debord (1977) implicates popular culture and the spectacle as paramount in the construction of a social order of consumption, he does offer some hope for those striving to work against the consumptive nature of capitalist hierarchies in the form of â€Å"detournement† By creating contradictions, negations, or parodies of a given work, â€Å"corrections† can be made to the meaning of the work in order to create a meaning that is more representative of the â€Å"true† states of societies. Marshall McLuhan (1964) argued in his groundbreaking work, Understanding Media, that popular culture experienced a drastic shift with the advent of technologies such as film, radio and television. Whereas popular culture had been print dominated in years previous, the shift to new types of media changed the way media was created and the effect was dramatic. McLuhan argues that the introduction of printed texts into cultures undermined the tribal aspect of communities and collective ideas that had once dominated small communities. Cultures became more individualistic and increased the power of logic and rationale of the written word as opposed to commonality among group members. The advent of new media brought about a more collective consciousness as individuals were drawn to its aesthetics. New tribal communities formed that were rooted in both local and global norms. Audience exposure to new and different sights and sounds increased the shared understanding across cultures. McLuhan also illustrates that the spread of media united people as a result of the media’s importance by comparing media to staples of a society’s economy. Television, for example, can be used to construct the cultural norms of a society. Those people who are active audience members of a particular television show or genre are likely to have shared beliefs, forming a tribal community of their own. McLuhan argued that the community building potential of television and the syndication of programming created the potential for these cultures to spread globally. While McLuhan’s work was performed in the 1960s the subsequent popularity of the Internet seems to confirm at the very least that communities of people who make up television audiences extend worldwide as fan sites, bulletin boards, and blogs dedicated to television programs cross multiple borders and cultures. Television, much of McLuhan’s media, is a part of popular culture. Research has also been conducted suggesting that popular culture has the ability to reaffirm existing cultural norms or as a tool in transforming current norms. Lee Artz (2004) has examined the cultural norms that are present in the bulk of the animation produced by the Walt Disney Co. Artz argues that the autocratic production process embraced by Disney executives results in four dominant themes present in nearly every animated film the company has released. These themes include the naturalization of hierarchy, the defense of elite coercion and power, promotion of hyper-individualism and the denigration of democratic solidarity (p. 126). The prevalence of these themes can be identified through study of the narratives contained within Disney films as well as through the stylistic elements of the animation itself. The ease with which animated film can be translated and transported into the languages and cultures of peoples worldwide offers a large audience to Disney in marketing its films and film-related products. The portability of Disney products from one culture to another is a problematic notion for Artz (2004), as he explains the social stratification present and reaffirmed in the films produced is largely representative of the global capital system that allows Disney to thrive as a media giant. Artz suggests that effective resistance against these thematic representations cannot be implemented by rogue Disney artists injecting subversive messages into films. Instead, â€Å"cooperative creations and narratives† and the appropriation and subsequent use of animation technology by artists, writers, and producers committed to the promotion of democracy would be more effective. This conclusion appears to be impirically proven. While not discussed in Artz’s work, subversive strategies have been employed by disgruntled artists involved in the production of Disney films (such as the post-production inclusion of an image of a topless woman in the background artwork of The Rescuers). However these acts did not generate substantial negative publicity for the company. Peter Simonson (2001) has examined the successes the animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) have experienced as a result of using communication strategies rooted in popular culture. PETA seeks to change predominant cultural norms in the area of animal welfare. Their traditional communicative strategies have relied on the generating news controversy and gaining news coverage. Simonson proposes that social movements and organizations seeking to change popular morals or norms rely upon social noise—a multifaceted concept that can be defined as messages that are compelling or loud enough to be heard amidst the signals of mass-media. Noise disrupts commonly held social meanings and is often discordant or disagreeable to a subset of the audience. Scholars have also focused on what makes a particular artifact or action popular. John Fiske (1989) studied culture as popular culture in terms of texts. By making textual analysis of artifacts in popular culture, Fiske began to make claims about the structure of popular messages. Fiske introduced the concept of the producerly text as a primary characteristic of popular culture. The producerly text is conceptually anchored in the distinctions made by Barthes (1977) between the writerly and readerly texts. Barthes contends that readerly texts are those that we are able to read passively. Interactions between the audience and these texts are receptive; there is no need to question or interpret the text in a different way than it is written. Writerly texts can be seen as those texts that require the reader to constantly evaluate and rewrite the meaning of the text, and writerly texts usually require some specialized knowledge or a toolset to decode (Fiske 1989). Many scholars and activists concur that there is a risk when entering into pop culture that the rhetoric used by those critiquing dominant ideologies and structures may be co-opted. The potential exists for the message to be appropriated by those in power for their own means; the message becomes incorporated by those in power in order to embolden their own claims or profits. The same process that allows activists to change the meaning of texts is available to everyone. Popular culture has the potential to create and transform both societal structure and norms. Additionally, communities of common exposure and belief can be developed using popular culture as a medium. There may be a risk of that subversive ideas can be incorporated by dominant systems of power, but this incorporation does not necessarily limit the transformative potential popular culture holds. When considering the culture jammer’s intent of questioning and changing norms popular culture becomes an interesting point of cultural injection. Conclusion In essence, the popular culture jam seeks to be appropriated into pop culture- it becomes pop culture and helps to redefine that which is popular. The result is a sort of â€Å"subpropriation,† where in the author seeks to have his or her work popularized in order to simultaneously popularize a previously subversive concept or idea. However, this appeal to the popular does not necessarily stop culture jamming from occurring. Entry into popular culture does not dictate that the message will be recuperated by industry. Rather, popular culture jamming takes place at a different point than other types of culture jamming. The â€Å"jam† in popular culture jamming occurs at the point that the artifact, action, or behavior becomes popular. The most obvious effect of moving towards a jamming of popular culture is the increased access to larger audiences. Popular culture does not request to be covered in the same way that news-oriented communication or advertisements often do. Instead, popular culture places demands upon media outlets to not only be covered but also be distributed to the masses. This sense of demand results because the popular is attractive to the media as a potential form of profit. Again, we see Fiske’s (1989) theories on production and incorporation at work. A popular culture jam spreads as a result of its popularity. Often this popularity is created by the irresistible profits that may be yielded from an artifact’s incorporation into the popular. In essence, one aspect of the structures that propagate and allow for globalization (and the subsequent problems that those in anti-globalization movements perceive to be resultant from it) to persist and thrive are turned back to criticize either itself or another portion of the hierarchal structure. Popular culture, despite the criticisms it often faces for lack of sophistication or intelligence, is an important element of our lives. Popular culture may also serve as a tool for those struggling against globalization, rampant consumerism, and capitalist exploitation. Each time we turn on a television or listen to the radio or log on to the Internet we are exposing ourselves to popular culture. Popular culture should not be perceived as an intellectual wasteland. While much of that which makes up popular culture may be perceived as being detrimental to society by any number of people, activists and media scholars cannot ignore or reject it. Popular culture needs to be embraced and transformed through the use of producerly texts in order to improve and transform the genre into another persuasive conduit for activists. Popular culture is not going away. In the age of new media popular culture is becoming even more pervasive in our lives as media formats are combined. If embraced as a rhetorical forum by culture jammers, popular culture can be transformed into a more revelatory and revolutionary space for communicating ideals that activists wish to make popular. References Artz, L., (2004), The Righteousness of Self-centered Royals: The World According to Disney Animation, Critical Arts Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, 116-146. Blackmore, S., (1999). The meme machine, 1st ed., Oxford University Press. Debord, G., (1977), The Society of the Spectacle. Available at http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SI/en/pub_contents. Dery, M., (2004, Oct 10), Culture jamming: hacking, slashing and sniping in the empire of signs. 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